Resurrection of Jesus

Resurrection of Christ by Noel Coypel, 1700.

In Christianity the Resurrection of Jesus refers to the return to bodily life of Jesus three days after his death by crucifixion. It is a key element of Christian faith and theology. The Resurrection of Jesus is not to be confused with the Ascension of Jesus into heaven forty days after the resurrection.^[1][2]

In the New Testament, after the Romans crucified Jesus, he was buried in a new tomb but he rose from the dead and appeared to many people over a span of forty days before his return to heaven (Ascension). Each spring, Christians celebrate the Resurrection of Jesus on Easter Sunday, three days after Good Friday, which marks his crucifixion. Easter's date corresponds roughly with Passover, the Jewish observance associated with the Exodus.

In several episodes in the Canonical Gospels Jesus foretells of his coming death and resurrection, and states that it was based on the plan of God the Father.^[3] Christians view the Resurrection of Jesus as part of the plan of salvation and redemption.^[4]

Scholars debate the origin of the resurrection narratives. Some contemporary scholars consider the accounts of Jesus' resurrection to have derived from the experiences of Jesus' followers and of Apostle Paul.^[5][6]

New Testament Events

In the New Testament there are three groups of events that surround the death and resurrection of Jesus: Crucifixion and burial: wherein Jesus is placed in a new tomb following his death, discovery of the empty tomb and the Resurrection appearances. The New Testament does not include an account of the "moment of resurrection" and in the Eastern Church icons do not depict that moment, but show the Myrrhbearers, and depict scenes of salvation.^[7][8]

Burial

Lamentation at the Tomb, 15th century.

All four Gospels state that, on the evening of the crucifixion, Joseph of Arimathea asked Pilate for the body of Jesus, and that, after Pilate granted his request, he wrapped Jesus' body in a linen cloth and laid it in a tomb.^[9] This was in accordance with Mosaic Law, which stated that a person hanged on a tree must not be allowed to remain there at night, but should be buried before sundown.^[10]

In Matthew, Joseph was identified as "also a disciple of Jesus;" in Mark he was identified as "a respected member of the council (Sanhedrin) who was also himself looking for the Kingdom of God;" in Luke he was identified as "a member of the council, good and righteous, who did not consent to their purpose or deed, and who was looking for the Kingdom of God'" and in John he was identified as "a disciple of Jesus."

The Gospel of Mark states that, when Joseph asked for Jesus' body, Pilate was shocked that Jesus was already dead, and he summoned a centurion to confirm this before dispatching the body to Joseph. John recorded that Joseph was assisted in the burial process by Nicodemus, who brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes and included these spices in the burial cloth as per Jewish customs.

Beyond "I was dead",^[Rev. 1:8] the only apparent New Testament comment on the three days in the tomb is 1 Peter 3:18-20, which describes Jesus as preaching to the "spirits in prison who disobeyed long ago". This passage, along with the words of Peter that God did "not leave his soul in Hades,"^[Acts 2:31] give rise to "descended to Hades" in the Apostles' Creed. The death state of Christ was considered by theologians such as Thomas Aquinas and related in traditions such as the Harrowing of Hell.

Tomb discovery

Women at the empty tomb, by Fra Angelico, 1437-1446.

Although no single Gospel gives an inclusive or definitive account of the resurrection of Jesus or his appearances, there are four points at which all four Gospels converge:^[11]

1. The linking of the empty tomb tradition and the visit of the women on "the first day of the week;"
2. That the risen Jesus chose first to appear to women (or a woman) and to commission them (her) to proclaim this most important fact to the disciples, including Peter and the other apostles;
3. The prominence of Mary Magdalene;
4. Attention to the stone that had closed the tomb

^[7][12] Variants have to do with the precise time the women visited the tomb, the number and identity of the women; the purpose of their visit; the appearance of the messenger(s)—angelic or human; their message to the women; and the response of the women.^[7]

All four Gospels report that several women were the ones to find the tomb of Jesus empty. According to Mark and Luke, the announcement of Jesus' resurrection was first made to women. According to Matthew and John, Jesus actually appeared first to women (in John to Mary Magdalene alone).^[7] "Whereas others found woman not qualified or authorized to teach, the four Gospels have it that the risen Christ commissioned women to teach men, including Peter and the other apostles, the resurrection, foundation of Christianity.^[7]

In the Gospels, especially the synoptics, women play a central role as eyewitness at Jesus' death, entombment, and in the discovery of the empty tomb. All three synoptics repeatedly make women the subject of verbs of seeing,^[13] clearly presenting them as eyewitnesses.^[14]

Resurrection appearances of Jesus

After the discovery of the empty tomb, the Gospels indicate that Jesus made a series of appearances to the disciples. These include the appearance to the disciples in the upper room, where Thomas did not believe until he was invited to put his finger into the holes in Jesus' hands and side;^[15] the Road to Emmaus appearance;^[16] and beside the Sea of Galilee to encourage Peter to serve his followers.^[17] His final appearance is reported as being forty days after the resurrection when he ascended into heaven,^[18] where he remains with God.

Soon after, on the road to Damascus, Paul of Tarsus converted to Christianity based on a vision of Jesus and later, became one of Christianity's foremost missionaries and theologians.^{[1 Cor. 15:6]} The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that Jesus appeared after his resurrection also upon the American continent and taught them.^[19]

Christian tradition

Secondo Pia's 1898 negative of the image on the Shroud of Turin has an appearance suggesting a positive image. It is used as part of the devotion to Holy Face of Jesus.

The resurrection of Jesus has long been central to Christian faith and appears within diverse elements of the Christian tradition, from feasts to artistic depictions to religious relics. In Christian teachings, the sacraments derive their saving power from the passion and resurrection of Christ, upon which the salvation of the world entirely depends.^[20]

An example of the interweaving of the teachings on the Resurrection with Christian relics is the application of the concept of "miraculous image formation" at the moment of Resurrection to the Shroud of Turin. Christian authors have stated the belief that the body around whom the shroud was wrapped was not merely human, but divine, and that the image on the shroud was miraculously produced at the moment of Resurrection.^[21][22] Quoting Pope Paul VI's statement that the shroud is "the wonderful document of His Passion, Death and Resurrection, written for us in letters of blood" author Antonio Cassanelli argues that the shroud is a deliberate divine record of the five stages of the Passion of Christ, created at the moment of Resurrection.^[23]

Easter

Easter, the preeminent feast that celebrates the Resurrection of Jesus is clearly the earliest Christian festival.^[24] Since the earliest Christian times, it has focused on the redemptive act of God in the death and resurrection of Christ.^[25]

Easter is linked to the Passover and Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper and crucifixion that preceded the resurrection. According to the New Testament, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as he prepared himself and his disciples for his death in the upper room during the Last Supper. He identified the loaf of bread and cup of wine as symbolizing his body soon to be sacrificed and his blood soon to be shed. 1 Corinthians 5:7 states, "Get rid of the old yeast that you may be a new batch without yeast—as you really are. For Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed"; this refers to the Passover requirement to have no yeast in the house and to the allegory of Jesus as the Paschal lamb.^[26]

Resurrection and Redemption

The New Testament teaches that the resurrection of Jesus is a foundation of the Christian faith.^[27][28] Christians, through faith in the working of God^[29] are spiritually resurrected with Jesus, and are redeemed so that they may walk in a new way of life.^[30]

In the teachings of the apostolic Church, the Resurrection was seen as heralding a new era. Forming a theology of the resurrection fell to Apostle Paul. It was not enough for Paul to simply repeat elementary teachings, but as the Epistle to the Hebrews 6:1 stated, "go beyond the initial teachings about Christ and advance to maturity". Fundamental to Pauline theology is the connection between Christ's Resurrection and redemption.^[31] Paul explained the importance of the resurrection of Jesus as the cause and basis of the hope of Christians to share a similar experience in 1 Corinthians 15:20-22:

Emperor Constantine and bishops with the Creed of 381.

But Christ really has been raised from the dead. He is the first of all those who will rise. Death came because of what a man did. Rising from the dead also comes because of what a man did. Because of Adam, all people die. So because of Christ, all will be made alive.

If the cross stands at the center of Paul's theology, so does the Resurrection: unless the one died the death of all, the all would have little to celebrate in the resurrection of the one.^[32] Paul taught that, just as Christians share in Jesus' death in baptism, so they will share in his resurrection^[33] for Jesus was designated the Son of God by his resurrection.^{[Rom 1:4] [33]} Paul's views went against the thoughts of the Greek philosophers to whom a bodily resurrection meant a new imprisonment in a corporeal body, which was what they wanted to avoid; given that for them the corporeal and the material fettered the spirit.^[34]

The Apostolic Fathers, discussed the death and resurrection of Jesus, including Ignatius (50−115),^[35] Polycarp (69−155), and Justin Martyr (100−165). Following the conversion of Constantine and the liberating Edict of Milan in 313, the ecumenical councils of the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries, that focused on Christology helped shape the Christian understanding of the redemptive nature of Resurrection, and influenced both the development of its iconography, and its use within Liturgy.^[36]

Belief in bodily resurrection was a constant note of the Christian church in antiquity. And nowhere was it argued for more strongly than in North Africa. Saint Augustine accepted it at the time of his conversion in 386.^[37] Augustine defended Resurrection, and argued that given that Christ has risen, there is resurrection of the dead.^[38][39] Moreover, he argued that the death and resurrection of Jesus was for the salvation of man, stating: "to achieve each resurrection of ours, the savior paid with his single life, and he pre-enacted and presented his one and only one by way of sacrament and by way of model.^[40]

The 5th century theology of Theodore of Mopsuestia provides an insight into the development of the Christian understanding of the redemptive nature of Resurrection. The crucial role of the sacraments in the mediation of salvation was well accepted at the time. In Theodore's representation of the Eucharist, the sacrificial and salvific elements are combined in the "One who saved us and delivered us by the sacrifice of Himself". Theodore's interpretation of the Eucharistic rite is directed towards the triumph over the power of death brought about by the Resurrection.^[41]

The emphasis on the salvific nature of the Resurrection continued in Christian theology in the next centuries, e.g. in the 8th century Saint John of Damascus wrote that: "...When he had freed those who were bound from the beginning of time, Christ returned again from among the dead, having opened for us the way to resurrection" and Christian iconography of the ensuing yeas represented that concept.^[42]

Depictions of the Resurrection

The Chi Rho with a wreath symbolizing the victory of the Resurrection, above Roman soldiers, ca. 350.

In the Catacombs or Rome, artists just hinted at the Resurrection by using images from the Old Testament such as the fiery furnace and Daniel in the Lion's den. Depictions prior to the seventh century generally used secondary events such as the Myrrhbearers at the tomb of Jesus to convey the concept of the Resurrection. An early symbol of the resurrection was the wreathed Chi Rho, whose origin traces to the victory of emperor Constantine I at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312, which he attributed to the use of a cross on the shields of his soldiers. Constantine used the Chi Rho on his standard and his coins showed a labarum with the Chi Rho killing a serpent.^[43]

The use of a wreath around the Chi Rho symbolizes the victory of the Resurrection over death, and is an early visual representations of the connection between the Crucifixion of Jesus and his triumphal resurrection, as seen in the fourth century sarcophagus of Domitilla in Rome. Here, in the wreathed Chi Rho the death and resurrection of Christ are shown as inseparable, and the Resurrection is not merely a happy ending tucked at the end of the life of Christ on earth. Given the use of similar symbols on the Roman standard, this depiction also conveyed another victory, namely that of the Christian faith: the Roman soldiers who had once arrested Jesus and marched him to Calvary now walked under the banner of a resurrected Christ.^[44]

The cosmic significance of the Resurrection in Western theology goes back to Saint Ambrose who in the 4th century said that "In Christ the world has risen, heaven has risen, the earth has risen". However, this theme was only developed later in Western theology and art. It was, a different matter in the East where the Resurrection was linked to redemption, and the renewal and rebirth of the whole world from a much earlier period. In art this was symbolized by combining the depictions of the Resurrection with the Harrowing of Hell in icons and paintings. A good example is from the Chora Church in Istanbul, where John the Baptist, Solomon and other figures are also present, depicting that Christ was not alone in the resurrection.^[45] The depiction sequence at the 10th century Hosios Loukas shows Christ as he pulls Adam, followed by Eve from his tomb, signifying the salvation of humanity after the resurrection.^[46]

Records

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Background

In First Century BC, debates existed among Jewish religious groups. The Pharisees believed in future Resurrection, and the Sadducees did not. The Sadducees did not believe in an afterlife, but the Pharisees believed in a literal resurrection of the body.^[47] The Sadducees, politically powerful religious leaders, rejected the afterlife, angels, and demons as well as the Pharisees oral law. The Pharisees, whose views became Rabbinic Judaism, eventually won (or at least survived) this debate. The promise of a future resurrection appears in the Torah as well as in certain Jewish works, such as the Life of Adam and Eve, c 100 BC, and the Pharisaic book 2 Maccabees, c 124 BC.^[48]

In the Torah, the Jewish scriptures and the Old Testament of the Bible, it was the promise of God to provide an eternal liberating king in the line of King David of Bethlehem.^[49] Apostle Peter used this reasoning to argue for the significance of the resurrection.^[50] The Apostle Paul also connects Jesus' death and resurrection with a fulfilment of scripture.^{[1 Cor 15:3-4]}

Early creeds

The earliest written records of the death and resurrection of Jesus are the letters of Paul, which were written around two decades after the death of Jesus,^[51][52] and show that within this timeframe Christians believed that it had happened. Some scholars suppose that these contain early Christian creeds and creedal hymns, which were included in several of the New Testament texts and that some of these creeds date to within a few years of Jesus' death and were developed within the Christian community in Jerusalem.^[53] Though embedded within the texts of the New Testament, these creeds are a distinct source for early Christianity.

• Epistle to the Romans 1:3–4: "...concerning his Son, who was descended from David according to the flesh and designated the Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ our Lord."^[54]
• Second Epistle to Timothy 2:8: "Remember Jesus Christ, raised from the dead, this is my Gospel."^[55]
• First Epistle to the Corinthians 15:3–7: "... that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures, that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the Scriptures"

This creed attests to an early belief in the resurrection narrative as well as resurrection appearances. These appearances include those to prominent members of Jesus' ministry and the later Jerusalem church, including James the brother of Jesus and the apostles, naming the apostle Peter (Cephas). The creed also makes reference to appearances to unidentified individuals. According to the Acts of the Apostles and Paul's Letter to the Galatians, he had contact with at least two of the named witnesses of the creed, James and Peter.^{[Gal 1:18-20]} Hans Von Campenhausen and A. M. Hunter have separately stated that the creed text passes high standards of historicity and reliability of origin.^[56][57]

Gospel narratives

According to the Gospels, Jesus rose from the dead on the third day after his crucifixion.^[58] The Gospel of Matthew states that after an earthquake an angel appeared near the tomb of Jesus and announced his resurrection to Mary Magdalene and "another Mary" who had arrived to anoint the body.^{[Matthew 28:1-10]} The Acts of the Apostles state that Jesus appeared to various people in various places over the next forty days, as the Resurrection appearances of Jesus.

Josephus

Flavius Josephus (c. 37–c. 100), a Jew and Roman citizen who worked under the patronage of the Flavians, wrote the Antiquities of the Jews c. 93 which contains a passage known as the Testimonium Flavianum. This passage mentions John the Baptist and Jesus as two holy men among the Jews.^[59] Scholars are not sure of the original text because of changes made to the text by Christian editors. This later text mentions the death and resurrection of Jesus: "When Pilate, upon the accusation of the first men amongst us, condemned [Jesus] to be crucified, those who had formerly loved him did not cease [to follow him], for he appeared to them on the third day, living again, as the divine prophets foretold, along with a myriad of other marvellous things concerning him."^[60] It is widely held by scholars that at least part of the Testimonium Flavianum is an interpolation, since Josephus was not a Christian and characterized his patron Emperor Vespasian as the foretold Messiah.^[61] (See also Josephus on Jesus.)

Latter-day Saints

According to records considered to be scripture by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, such as the Book of Mormon, the resurrected Christ soon appeared to other peoples of the earth, to show them that he lives and did indeed conquer death. He had told his disciples in Jerusalem that he would visit others when he said, "And other sheep I have, which are not of this fold: them also I must bring, and they shall hear my voice; and there shall be one fold, and one shepherd."^{[John 10:16]} He appeared to multitudes of the Nephite people and let all who would come to feel the marks in his hands and in his feet, and in his side. Similarly to other appearances of the Savior, the voice of God the Father was heard by the people as Christ descended into their midst, giving divine witness that this was his son, Jesus Christ, their living savior and redeemer.^[62]

Theological significance

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As Paul the Apostle stated: "If Christ was not raised, then all our preaching is useless, and your trust in God is useless."^{[1 Cor 15:14]} The death and resurrection of Jesus are the most important events in Christian Theology. They form the point in scripture where Jesus gives his ultimate demonstration that he has power over life and death, thus he has the ability to give people eternal life.^[63] According to the Bible, "God raised him from the dead,"^[64] he ascended to heaven, to the "right hand of God",^[65] and will return again^{[Acts 1:9–11]} to fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment and establishment of the Kingdom of God; see also Messianism and Messianic Age.^[66]

Some modern scholars use the belief of Jesus' followers in the resurrection as a point of departure for establishing the continuity of the historical Jesus and the proclamation of the early church.^[67] Carl Jung suggests that the crucifixion-resurrection account was the forceful spiritual symbol of, literally, God-as-Yahweh becoming God-as-Job.^[68]

Many scholars have contended that in discussion the resurrection, Apostle Paul refers to a rabbinic style transmission of an early authoritative tradition that he received and has passed on to the church at Corinth. For this and other reasons, it is widely believed that this creed is of pre-Pauline origin.^[69][70] Geza Vermes writes that the creed is "a tradition he [Paul] has inherited from his seniors in the faith concerning the death, burial and resurrection of Jesus".^[71] The creeds ultimate origins are within the Jerusalem apostolic community having been formalised and passed on within a few years of the resurrection.^[72] Paul Barnett writes that this creedal formula, and others, were variants of the "one basic early tradition that Paul "received" in Damascus from Ananias in about 34 [CE]" after his conversion.^[73]

According to international scholar Thorwald Lorenzen, the first Easter led to a shift in emphasis from faith "in God" to faith "in Christ." Today, Lorenzen finds "a strange silence about the resurrection in many pulpits." He writes that among some Christians, minsters, and professors, it seems to have to have become "a cause for embarrassment or the topic of apologetics."^[74]:pp.3-4 It has been argued that many Christians neglect the resurrection because of their understandable pre-occupation with the Cross.^[75] However, the belief in Jesus' physical resurrection remains the single doctrine most accepted by Christians of all denominational backgrounds.

Groups such as Jews, Muslims, Bahá'ís, and other non-Christians, as well as some liberal Christians, dispute whether Jesus actually rose from the dead. Arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religious debates and interfaith dialogues.^[74]

Origin of the narrative

The ultimate origin of the Apostles early belief in the resurrection of Jesus is debated by theologians, scholars and lay persons alike.

The earliest Christians proclaimed Jesus as the risen Christ. The first Christians may be defined as those followers of Jesus who, after his crucifixion, proclaimed him as the risen lord.^[33] The earliest Christian scriptures place Jesus' resurrection at the center of religious faith.

5 part resurrection icon, Solovetsky Monastery, 17th century.

The preaching of the Apostle Peter in the Acts of the Apostles which is widely believed to reflect Aramaic Jewish-Christian preaching^[76] declare that Jesus died, was raised by God and the apostles are witnesses to this resurrection.^[77] The same proclamation of Jesus' death and resurrection is found within the letters of Paul. In his first epistle to the Corinthians(^{[1Co. 15:1-8]}, Paul passes on a Christian creed that he claimed to have received at his conversion. Paul Barnett writes that this creedal formula, and others, were variants of the "one basic early tradition that Paul "received" in Damascus from Ananias in about 34 [CE]."^[73] The comparatively short length of time between the events and the earliest descriptions makes it unlikely that a deliberate fraud could have occurred.

Although narrative of Jesus' entombment and resurrection circulated orally among early Christians, its first extant recording as a narrative is found in the Gospel of Mark, in addition to the other canonical gospels. E.P. Sanders argues that a plot to foster belief in the Resurrection would probably have resulted in a more consistent story, and that some of those who were involved in the events gave their lives for their belief. However, Sanders offers his own hypothesis, different from the supporters, claiming that "there seems to have been a competition: 'I saw him,' 'so did I,' 'the women saw him first,' 'no, I did; they didn't see him at all,' and so on."^[78]

In Mark's account, the earliest manuscripts of Mark 16 break off abruptly at 16:8, where the men at the empty tomb announce Jesus' resurrection, lacking post-resurrection appearances of Jesus. The modern text of Mark 16:9–20 does not appear in the earliest manuscripts.^[79] Many modern translations of Mark 16 end at Mark 16:8 with for they were afraid, sometimes adding 16:8–20 in italics, or in a foot note; the New Revised Standard Version gives both the "long ending," i.e., 16:8–20, and another variant "short ending" after Mark 16:8. Scholars disagree about whether the original work ended at 16:8, or whether the last part, perhaps the last page, is missing.^[33] John Fenton writes that if the Evangelist intended to end at 16:8, this does not mean that he "did not believe that Christ was risen" as he refers to the resurrection directly and indirectly on numerous occasions throughout the work.^[80] Reginald Fuller believes that the "writer seemed to know such appearances, apparently to Peter and the others in Galilee."^[81]

James D.G. Dunn writes that where the apostle Paul's resurrection experience was "visionary in character" and "non-physical, non-material" the accounts in the Gospels are very different. He contends that the "massive realism'...of the [Gospel] appearances themselves can only be described as visionary with great difficulty - and Luke would certainly reject the description as inappropriate" and that the earliest conception of resurrection in the Jerusalem Christian community was physical.^[82]

Conversely, Helmut Koester writes that the stories of the resurrection were originally more like the visionary experience of Paul and that they were interpreted as physical proof of the event at a secondary stage. He contends that the exact details of the resurrection story are also secondary and do not come from historically trustworthy information but belong to the genre of the narrative types.^[83] Members of the Jesus Seminar believe that Mary of Magdala, Paul, and probably Peter had genuine visionary experiences of the risen Jesus.^[5] Dale Allison believes that a visionary explanation cannot be easily dismissed as most post-bereavement visions appear solid and realistic.^[84]

Those who think Paul was a Gnostic Christian hold the belief that Paul talks of the resurrection as an allegory or that Paul thought that Jesus was never a human.^[85]

Non-Christian views

Some other religions include their own descriptions of Jesus. One way or another, they deny that Jesus was raised from the dead.

The Church of the Holy Sepulchre now occupies the traditionally ascribed location of Jesus' death and burial.

Judaism

Jesus was Jewish, but Christianity split with Judaism in the first century, and the two faiths have been mutually hostile ever since. According to one Jewish perspective, the body of Jesus was removed in the same night.^[86] Some Apologists see this as an acknowledgment that the tomb was empty, with an attempt to explain it away. The Toledoth Yeshu, however, dates from mediaeval times, and is not an early source.

Islam

Muslims believe that Jesus son of Mary was a holy prophet with a divine message. The Islamic perspective is that Jesus was not crucified and will be resurrected to the world at the end of times. "But Allâh raised him up to Himself. And Allâh is Ever All-Powerful, All-Wise".^[87] The Quran says in Surah An-Nisa [Ch004:Verse157] "And because of their saying, "We killed Messiah 'Îsâ (Jesus), son of Maryam (Mary), the Messenger of Allâh," – but they killed him not, nor crucified him, but it appeared so to them, and those who differ therein are full of doubts".^[88]

Ahmadiyya

The Ahmadiyya Movement originated in 19th century India as a restoration movement within Islam. They believe that Jesus survived the crucifixion and traveled to Kashmir, where he died as a prophet under the name of Yuz Asaf (whose grave they identify in Srinagar, India).^[89]

Gallery of art

For a larger gallery, please see: Resurrection gallery

Piero della Francesca, 15th century

Fra Angelico, 1440-1441

Raphael, 1449-1502

Lucas Cranach, 1558

See also

• Tomb of Jesus:
  • The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the ground on which the church stands is venerated by most Christians as Golgotha, the Hill of Calvary, where the New Testament says that Jesus was crucified
  • The Garden Tomb, discovered in the 19th century, considered the actual site of Jesus' grave by some Christians.
  • Talpiot Tomb, discovered in 1980, subject of the controversial documentary The Lost Tomb of Jesus
• Faith and rationality
• Islamic view of Jesus' death
• Life-death-rebirth deity
• Mythography of Jesus Christ

Footnotes and references

Further reading

Theological

• The resurrection of Jesus Christ, Catholic Encyclopedia.

Historical

Pro-Resurrection

Articles:

• Craig, William Lane, Contemporary Scholarship and the Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ, 1985, Truth 1 89–95
• David Marshall (Ph.D.). "The Risen Jesus" an essay in Essential Jesus, edited by Bryan Ball and William Johnsson, and published by Pacific Press in 2002.
• Habermas, Gary, "Resurrection Research from 1975 to the Present: What are Critical Scholars saying?" Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus, Jun2005, Vol. 3 Issue 2, p135-153
• Wright, N.T., "Resurrecting Old Arguments: Responding to Four Essays," Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus, Jun2005, Vol. 3 Issue 2, p209-231. [2]
• Yamauchi, Edwin, Easter: Myth, Hallucination, or History?, 1974, Christianity Today

Books:

• Bauckham, Richard. Jesus and the Eyewitnesses: The Gospels as Eyewitness Testimony. Wm. B. Eerdman's, 2008.
• Bruce, FF, The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?, 1985, Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press
• Endsjø, Dag Øistein. Greek Resurrection Beliefs and the Success of Christianity. New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2009.
• Habermas, Gary and Licona, Michael, The Case for the Resurrection of Jesus, Kregel Publications, 2004.
• Habermas, Gary, The Historical Jesus: Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ (College Press: Joplin, MI 1996).
• McDowell, Josh, New Evidence that Demands a Verdict, Thomas Nelson, Inc, Publishers, 1999
• Strobel, Lee, The Case for Easter, Zondervan Publishing Company, 2004.
• Wenham, John. Easter Enigma: Do the Resurrection Stories Contradict One Another? Cambridge University Press, 1993.
• Wright, N.T., The Resurrection of the Son of God. Fortress Press. 2003 Online excerpt

Sceptical

Articles:

• Crossley, James G.. "Against the Historical Plausibility of the Empty Tomb Story and the Bodily Resurrection of Jesus: A Response to N.T. Wright,"Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus, Jun2005, Vol. 3 Issue 2, p171-186
• Price, Robert M., By This Time He Stinketh: The Attempts of William Lane Craig to Exhume Jesus. 1997.

Books:

• Paine, Thomas, The Age of Reason, 1795
• Robert M. Price and Jeffery Jay Lowder, The Empty Tomb: Jesus Beyond the Grave (ISBN 1–59102–286-X), 2005
• Spong, John Shelby, Resurrection: Myth or Reality? , 1995

Dialogues

• Craig, William Lane, Jesus' Resurrection: Fact or Figment?: A Debate Between William Lane Craig and Gerd Ludemann. IVP Academic, 2000.
• Is There Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus?: A Debate between William Lane Craig and Bart D. Ehrman (transcript) [3] (video)
• Stewart, Robert B. The Resurrection of Jesus: John Dominic Crossan And N.T. Wright in Dialogue, 2006

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